Background
          A graduate of Wesleyan University, “Jack” Carroll began his early academic career engaged in the study of languages, a long-held interest.  After earning a doctorate in Psychology from the University of Minnesota, he served as a psychologist for the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Army and later, the Educational Testing Service.  Carroll was a prolific author, publishing over 500 articles, including Human Cognitive Abilities(1993)[i], widely considered to be the definitive work on that subject.  His lengthy and diverse career also included teaching assignments at Harvard, University of Chicago, and the University of North Carolina where he would stay until his retirement in 1982. In 2002, he received the American Psychological Association's Gold Medal Award for Life Achievement in the Science of Psychology in recognition of his distinguished career and lasting contributions to the field of psychology[ii].

MLAT
          Carroll’s early contribution to the field of education was evidenced by his co-development of the MLAT (the Modern Language Aptitude Test).  The MLAT was the result of 5 years of research by Carroll and  Stanley Sapon,  in which Carroll had postulated that the ability to learn a language was not just one specific generalized ability, but rather a multifactorial representation of at least four reasonably independent focused abilities.  The initial purpose of the MLAT was as a tool to used by the Army to predict which students were most likely to learn foreign languages with ease and success. The research and writings conducted for the MLAT are generally considered the most comprehensive and influential work on the subject.[iii]

 

Human Cognition

          Human Cognitive Abilities, published in 1993, is  considered to be the culmination of Carroll’s life’s work.  His theory  about the structure of intellect built upon and expanded the contributions of Spearman, Thurstone and Guilford. Carroll proposed a Three-Stratum-Model that identified the existence of individual differences in cognitive abilities and postulated how these differences were related to each other.[iv] 

The Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Abilities[v]:
III -- the general level; general intellectual ability
II -- the broad level; including fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory and learning, processing speed
I -- the narrow level; more specific facto

 

Model of School Learning

          In 1963, Carroll presented his Model of School Learning (as seen in figure 1), in which he argued that student aptitude is primarily an index of time required to learn.  He theorized that learning was a function of time spent divided by time needed, a view in stark contrast to long held notions about aptitude.[vi]  Carroll’s model of school learning recognized that the factors influencing the degree of learning were affected by both the characteristics of the learner ( aptitude, ability to understand instruction and perseverance), and the characteristics of the instruction (opportunity to learn, quality of instruction).  The model, and its foundational conceptualization of aptitude,  inspired the development of a variety of educational programs centering on individualized instruction, including the idea of mastery learning.[vii]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1.

Carroll’s Model of School Learning

 

Impact on Teaching and Learning

         Carroll is most notably known for his contributions to the field of cognitive psychology (the identification of individual differences in cognitive abilities), linguistics (foreign language learning aptitude), and educational theory and practice (the relationship between time and learning, the development of mastery learning).[viii]

 

Current Applications

          Now some fifty years after the MLAT’s creation in 1959, it is still considered to be the benchmark assessment for foreign language learning.  It continues to be widely used for the selection and placement of adults into government and missionary foreign language programs.  Additionally, it is also used to aid in the diagnosis of learning disabilities. [ix]

A Critical Analysis of theory on Learning Transfer

           Although Carroll did not specifically address the idea of learning transfer, his notions of time (opportunity to learn), motivation (perseverance) and the provision of quality of instruction relate well to transfer. Carroll believed that the time available for learning (opportunity to learn) was frequently insufficient, and therefore  a common barrier to learning.  Certainly the notion of the provision of adequate time relative to the learning task, and the effective use of time are important components in designing contexts that facilitate transfer.[x]   Motivation, as seen thru the lens of learning transfer, influences the amount of time that a learner is willing to devote to learning; this conceptualization mirrors Carroll’s variable of perseverance. Carroll believed that quality of instruction was strongly related to the degree of learning, a view in-line with the contemporary understanding of transfer.  Current models of good instructional design (i.e. Gagne’, ADDIE, Kemp) can serve to assist  facilitators of learning to enhance the likelihood of transfer.[xi]
 

Facilitation Methods for Learning Transfer

-Ensure the teaching of metacognition & metacognitive reflection (enhancing a learner’s understanding of their own learning processes, and building on their ability to reflect on their learning from a variety of perspectives; learners who are successful at transfer, know not only how to “do” what they are transferring, but also know how to transfer)[xii]

-Ensure the provision of specific and prompt feedback given at regular intervals throughout the instructional period[xiii]

-Ensure the inclusion of good instructional design: knowledge of objectives, access to content, and carefully planned and clearly specified instructional events[xiv]

References

[i] J. B. Carroll.(1993)Human cognitive abilities: a survey factor analysis

New York: Cambridge University Press.

 

[ii] Association for Psychological Science

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2003/november-03/in-appreciation-john-b-carroll.html

 

[iii]  Sasaki, M. (2012). The modern language aptitude test (paper-and pencil version)

 Language Testing 29(2), 315–321.

 

[iv] http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2003/november-03/in-appreciation-john-b-carroll.html

 

[v]  http://www.intelltheory.com/

 

[vi] Davis & Sorrell, 1995, Davis, D., & Sorrell, J. (1995). Mastery learning in public schools. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [03/15/2015], from http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/mastlear.html.

 

[vii] Carroll, J.B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25 year retrospective and prospective view. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 26-31.

 

[viii] http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2003/november-03/in-appreciation-john-b-carroll.html

 

[ix] Sasaki, M. (2012). The modern language aptitude test (paper-and pencil version)

 Language Testing 29(2), 315–321.

 

[x] Bransford, John D. (Ed); Brown, Ann L. (Ed); Cocking, Rodney R. (Ed). (2001). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. National Research Council Commission on Behavioral & Social Sciences & Education, Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning Washington, DC: National Academy.  click here

 

[xi] Kaiser, L.M. (Ed.), Kaminski, K. (Ed.),  Foley, J.M. (Ed.). (2013). Learning transfer in adult education: new directions for adult and continuing education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2003/november-03/in-appreciation-john-b-carroll.html

 

[xii]Daffron, S.R. & North, M.W. (2011). Successful transfer of learning.  Malabar: Krieger click here

 

[xiii]Mastery learning in public schools. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [03/19/2015] from http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/mastlear.html

 

[xiv]Wiggins, G. (2013). What is transfer?. http://www.authenticeducation.org/ae_bigideas/article.lasso?artid=60