Introduction

                Donald A. Schön popularized an approach to professional education he called “reflection-in-action,” which acknowledged that important learning unfolds through problem solving in the heat of everyday “messy” experience, where problems are ill structured, outcomes uncertain, and situational dimensions constantly shifting. (Fenwick, 2001) Donald A. Schön, studied Dewey’s theory of inquiry for his thesis at Harvard and went on to expand that theory to include the practice of reflective professional learning.  His first major work, The Displacement of Concepts in 1963 started a journey of more than 34 years of studying how learning occurs with organizations and societies that are in permanent and constant state of flux.

 

History

                Donald A. Schön spent the beginning half of his career as a consultant for the Arthur D. Little firm. Here is where he studied first-hand the dynamics of invention and the resulting changes technology had imposed on social systems. His first work, in 1963, The Displacement of Concepts, (Schön, The Displacement of Concepts, 1963) reflected his insight into the dynamics of invention.  In 1967, he wrote Technology and change: The new Heraclitus (Schön, Technology and change: The new Hearclitus, 1967) as a prelude to the research and knowledge about organizational learning that he was compiling.

            As the years progressed, so did Donald Schön’s theory of organizational learning. He used John Dewey’s Theory of Inquiry as a springboard and expanded it to include the application of learning theory to problems and situation that are continually in the state of flux. It was in 1973, Schön penned Beyond the Stable State. (Schön, Beyond the Stable State, 1973) This body of work speaks to the constant changes that occur within society in general and organizations in particular and how learning needs to adapt to these changes. It is in this work, Schön introduced the concept of a learning system.

            In 1974, along with Chris Argyris, Schön wrote Theory in practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. (Schön & Argyris, Theory in Practice: Increasing professional effectiveness, 1974) This body of work introduced the two theories of action that people use to resolve problems. Theories-in-use, which is what we actually use to resolve a problem and espoused theory, which is what we tell others we have used to resolve the problem. The authors describe in detail the differences between the theories and how the apply to professional effectiveness.

            Schön, in collaboration with Chris Argyris wrote Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective (Schön & Argyris, Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective, 1978). This major work examined, in depth, an organization’s response mechanisms and abilities to adapt, develop and cope with an ever changing external environment. Some succeed and thrive while others wither and die.

            The next major work in 1983, The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action (Schön, The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action, 1983) took Dewey’s experiential theories to a new level. Schön’s approach was to look at how professionals applied theory to real life imperfect situations through critical reflection. This reflection included forming defined problems to create solutions. Schön also noted the impact of technology and how it interfaced with the application of knowledge in the ever changing world.

            In 1987, Educating the Reflective Practitioner (Schön, Educating the Reflective Practitioner, 1987) expanding on the application of theories to messy real life issues by advocating reflection as a piece of the solution to everyday issues. In this work he expanded the idea that reflection increased with experience, learning and practice. A continual loop became the building blocks to move our knowledge base from the “artsy” to the technical realm.

            For the next several years, Schön continued to expound on his theories of critical reflection and its’ place in experiential learning. His last work with Chris Argyris in 1996, has become a foundation for what is known as organizational development or learning. This book, Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice (Schön & Argyris, Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice, 1996) is an update version of their original work in 1978.

 

Impact

                Donald A. Schön had a significant impact on the field of education as well as organizational development. Prior to his writings, courses of study, such as education were not considered high level learning like math or science. Education was relegated along with the arts and social studies to lower level learning that had the perception of not needing as much knowledge or brain power to master. Schön enlightened the world with his teaching that all fields of study were in a state of flux, brought on primarily by the advent of technology. No field was immune and critical reflection was a way to make sense of the turmoil.

            Schön’s work in organizational development paved the way for business leaders to help manage change and thrive because of it by reinforcing learning through practice and reflection. When dealing with real-life messy situations that don’t match theory exactly, practice and reflection allow for the situations to be modeled after problems that can then be solved with known theories. His work took experiential learning to a new level.

 

References

Fenwick, T. J. (2001). Experiential Learning: A Theoretical Critique, From Five Perspectives. ERIC Publications - Opinion Papers, pp. 1-59.

Schön, D. A. (1963). The Displacement of Concepts. London: Tavistock.

Schön, D. A. (1967). Technology and change: The new Hearclitus. Oxford: Pergamon.

Schön, D. A. (1973). Beyond the Stable State. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think in action. London: Temple Smith.

Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schön, D. A. (1991). The Reflective Turn: Case studies in and on educational practice. New York: Teachers College (Columbia).

Schön, D. A., & Argyris, C. (1974). Theory in Practice: Increasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schön, D. A., & Argyris, C. (1978). Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

Schön, D. A., & Argyris, C. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

Schön, D. A., & Rein, M. (1994). Frame Reflection: Toward the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies. New York: Basic Books.

Smith, M. (2015, February 22). ‘Donald Schön: learning, reflection and change’,the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-schon.htm: http://infed.org/mobi/donald-schon-learning-reflection-change/