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Theorist Profile

 

          Education and Psychology are integrated in a common field called Educational Psychology which studies and applies theories and concepts from all of psychology in educational settings. One of these theories is Behaviorism which is defined in Learning in Adulthood (2007) as “learning as a change in behavior” that is “a measurable response to stimuli in the environment.”  Behaviorism has its roots in the work of Pavlov (Classical Conditioning), Watson (The Behaviorist Manifesto), Thorndike (Law of Effect), and Skinner who was influenced by the work of these three behaviorists. This paper will present the work of B.F. Skinner and his contribution to the field of education.  In particular, I reviewed his book The Behavior of Organisms, parts of Science and Human Behavior, and secondary sources.

 

B.F. Skinner

          Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist and behaviorist born on March 20, 1904 in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania to William and Grace Skinner. His father was a lawyer and his mother stayed home to care for him and his younger brother who died at age sixteen. He became an atheist after a Christian teacher tried to alleviate his fear of the hell that his grandmother described. I think that this event played an important role in Skinner’s life. For instance, while attending Hamilton College in New York where he received his B.A in English and Literature, he wrote for the school paper and showed his religious beliefs by criticizing the position of the institution regarding religion.

           After graduating from Hamilton College in 1926, he started his Master’s in Psychology at Harvard University where he was also a researcher and educator. Motivated and encouraged by his curiosity for a better way to measure behavior and the previous work of other behaviorists, he developed an operant conditioning chamber which became better known as the Skinner Box (which I will describe in more detail below). Like Pavlov and Thorndike who experimented with animals to study behavior, Skinner placed rats and pigeons into his chamber to develop his theory of operant conditioning.   He also developed other inventions such as the cumulative recorder, air crib, and teaching machine that were clear examples of his lifelong ability to create innovative devices. 

          In 1931 Skinner received a Ph.D. from Harvard and remained there as a researcher until 1936. Then he taught at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis and later at Indiana University where he was chair of the psychology department from 1946–1947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained at Harvard for the rest of his life.

          In 1936, Skinner married Yvonne Blue. The couple had two daughters, Julie  and Deborah. Skinner continued to write and work until just before his death. Skinner died of leukemia on August 18, 1990, and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts. A few days before Skinner died, he was given a lifetime achievement award by the American Psychological Association and delivered a 15-minute address concerning his work.

          In addition to being a psychologist and inventor, Skinner was also a well-known author who published 21 books and 180 articles on human behavior.  His most important books are: The Behavior of Organisms (1938), Walden Two (1948), Verbal Behavior (1957), The Technology of Teaching (1968), and Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971).

 

Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

          It is well known that prior to this theory, behavior was studied by other psychologists such as Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike who had an enormous impact on Skinner’s theory.  Unlike Pavlov, who developed the Classical Conditioning theory which was focused on involuntary and automatic behaviors (Pavlov’s dogs), Skinner’s theory involved conditioning voluntary and controllable behaviors where the response comes before the stimulus. Skinner also based his theory on the work of Thorndike who studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to develop his “Law of Effect” theory.  What made Skinner’s theory different from Pavlov and Thorndike’s was the fact that he introduced the concept of reinforcement while studying behavior.  He believed that behavior is sustained by reinforcements or rewards, not by free will. Behavior that is reinforced tends to be repeated. On the other hand, behavior that is not reinforced tends to be eradicated.  Moreover, Skinner also believed that punishment decreased behavior and was different from negative reinforcement.

          To develop his theory Skinner created a device that had a lever and a food tray. Inside the box he placed a hungry rat that could get food from the tray by pressing the lever. Initially the animal started walking around and exploring the new environment in a very active way due to the hunger. After a few minutes the rat accidentally pressed the lever and a food pellet was released into the tray. This action had a positive effect on the rat’s behavior and learning because the animal realized that doing that it could feed itself.  The rat pressed the lever repeatedly until it got satisfied.  Skinner called this effect positive reinforcement.  On the other hand, he also studied negative reinforcement by placing rats into an electrified box that delivered unpleasant shocks.    

          The box also had levers to cut the power. He observed that after the rats accidentally pressed the lever they learned how to stop the electrical shocks.  Both experiments demonstrated the influence of reinforcement on behavior and learning which it is an important concept to understand Behaviorism.

          In The Behavior of Organisms (1938), Skinner defined negative reinforcement to be similar to punishment. After being criticized for making this connection to punishment, Skinner then redefined the term of negative reinforcement in his book , Science and Human Behavior (1953) and stated that positive reinforcement is “the strengthening of behavior by the occurrence of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), whereas negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you). Please see a Youtube video showing how the Skinner Box works. https://www.youtube.com/watchv=MOgowRy2WC0

         As I mentioned previously, Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning theory was used by Skinner to develop his Operant Conditioning theory. These two theories are vital to understand Behaviorism as both are focused on how behavior can influence learning. However, the processes are different. Open this Youtube link to see the comparison between these two theories.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io

                                                                                                                   

Skinner’s contribution to the field of education

          The work of Skinner has significantly influenced the field of education at its different levels from elementary to higher education and also in informal learning settings. I observe that it is now common to see how educators prioritize building a safe learning environment where they apply the concepts of reinforcement as tools to improve behaviors and enhance learning. According to Lieberman (2000), “Skinner disagreed with the idea of using punishments in school as a tool to improve behavior because he found through his own work that punishments had the opposite effect. On the contrary, Skinner himself advocated for the frequent use of reinforcement (i.e. rewards) to modify and influence students.  His learning view relied on the assumption that the best way to modify behavior was to modify the environment” (Lieberman).  I think that this idea of using reinforcement (positive or negative) at the school level to improve behavior and learning among students have been misunderstood by some school systems in the US. As a father of two children who are part of public education in DC, I have seen some extremes such as financial rewards given to students especially in needy schools to keep students in school and also to improve achievement (grades).  I disagree with this kind of reinforcement because in this way students’ motivation is run by extrinsic factors (money) instead of the internal desire to learn and improve that can result in loss of self- motivation.  I understand that the rate of student drop out is very high in some areas around the country. But financial rewards are not the right answer to solve this weakness in the system. Instead educators must be better trained to have a strong understanding of the teaching / learning process that takes place in class and the needs of the learners.  I know that in some public schools the educators receive financial rewards when the students improve their academic performance. I think that it is a better way to solve the problem and also makes me think than reinforcement can be applied to educators as well. Besides financial rewards (positive reinforcement), training to improve teaching practices to correct problems represents a good example of negative reinforcement.

          As an adult educator I see the application of Skinner’s theory into the field of adult second language acquisition. When adult learners are rewarded after performing a task independently of the outcomes, they feel that their efforts are valued and, as a consequence, their motivation for learning increases. At this level simple examples of positive reinforcement are expressions such as “good try” or “good job.”  I think that with adult learners reinforcement must be very objective to avoid creating false expectations on the learners. Furthermore, error corrections (negative reinforcement) are important tools to help learners to improve.

          In conclusion, learners are not lab rats. They will not push a lever to receive a food pellet. But they will push to learn more when they feel respected and encouraged. Skinner’s work contributed to understanding how to support adult learners by providing the right stimulus to favor learning.  As an adult learner, I think that receiving positive or negative reinforcement from the adult educator increases my motivation to learn and my interest in the class. Skinner’s work emphasizes the importance of educators participating actively in the learning process and having the courage to recognize their own weaknesses in order to improve their quality of teaching.

 

References

Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., and Baumgarther, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood.         San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 11(4), 275-281

B.F. Skinner Foundation (http://www.bfskinner.org/publications/)

Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. Retrieved January 22, 2015 from http://www.bfskinner.org/newtestsite/wpcontent/uploads/2014/02/ScienceHumanBehavior.pdf

Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Retrieved February 4, 20015 from

 http://s-f-walker.org.uk/pubsebooks/pdfs/Conditioned-Reflexes-Pavlov.pdf

Thorndike, E.L. (1911). Animal Intelligence. Retrieved February 16, 2015 from              http://books.google.com/books?id=LC7GeCzw0lQC

Wikipedia, B.F. Skinner.  Retrieved February 3, 2015 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._F._Skinner

Youtube, Classical Vs. Operant Conditioning. Retrieved February 3, 2015 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0E0io

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Behaviorist Approach. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html