The Theories and Theorists that Shape our Understanding of the Learning Process
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Maria Montessori’s scientific approach to the free classroom led to a method of self-directed learning for children.
Constructivism
Constructivist Theory states that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge and then synthesizes the information, applies it and reflects upon it. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given.
Overview & Resources
Facilitation Methods
General Classrooms/Environments
Constructivist classrooms are characterized by actively involved
learners. Activities are interactive and student-centered. The
physical environment (if applicable) should reflect this by being
set in such a way to encourage discussion. The facilitator’s role,
particularly in adult learning, is to provide opportunities for the
learner to make meaningful connections between the subject and
their own experience.
More general information on constructivism can be found here.
Some principles of application
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The learner uses sensory input and does something with it,
ultimately making meaning of it -
Learning consists of both constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning -
Learning involves language
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Learning is a social activity
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Learning is contextual. We do not isolate facts from the situations and environments in which they are relevant.
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Knowledge is necessary for learning. It is the basis of structure and meaning-making. The more we know, the more we can learn.
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Learning takes time; it is not spontaneous. Learners go over information, ponder them, use them, practice, experiment (reflect).
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Learner motivation is a necessary component
(Constructivism learning theory. (n.d.) retrieved from: http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Learningtheories/constructivism/constructivism.html)
These broad principles lead to a variety of educational designs and formats for students of all ages.
Donald Schön was most noted for his work with organizational learning and extending John Dewey’s theory of experiential learning to real world messy situations.
http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/constructivist.html
Constructivism (philosophy of education) [Wikipedia]
David A. Kolb on experiential learning
Kurt Lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research
Australian Journal of Adult Learning (see table of contents)
Experiential Learning: A Theoretical Critique from Five Perspectives
The roles of experience and reflection in ambulatory care education.
Experiential Learning articles and critiques of David Kolb's theory
David A. Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory and the Learning Styles Inventory
Experiential Learning: David Kolb's Theory of Learning
Education Theory: Constructivism and Social Constructivism
http://www.pbs.org/onlyateacher/john.html
How do I apply constructivism in my classroom?
Use a Learning Theory: Constructivism
Spock explaining constructivism - Star Trek TOS S03E06
Piaget's Theory of Constructivism
CONSTRUCTIVISM in Piaget and Vygotsky
Dewey is most known for his role in developing the progressive education movement in America. In 1896 Dewey established the Dewey’s Laboratory School which became the brain child of progressive education in contrast to the rigid, teacher centered traditional educational. Dewey made a wealth of timeless contributions to the knowledge base in educational psychology and theory.
More Information
Is an American psychologist whose contributions were in human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner also made contributions is developmental psychology, language development, and legal psychology.
On the Job Learning (Learning Organizations)
Organizational learning is rooted in constructivism through
collaborative knowledge that leads to “actionable learning” for an
organization and its members. An organization’s ability to survive
and grow is based on advantages that stem from core competencies
that represent collective learning. Three key management objectives
are universally found in successfully learning organizations:
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Well-developed core competencies from which to continually
launch new or improved products or services (formed through
the tacit knowledge of experienced people)
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A corporate attitude that supports and promotes continuous
improvement (often through experimentation)
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The ability to fundamentally renew or revitalize itself by shedding old or outdated lines of business (through a questioning organizational learning style)
An organization’s approach to a learning system may vary, but all are rooted in the business line, culture, and environment of the organization. You can learn more by clicking onto the photo.
Constructivist Psychologists
Kurt Lewin
Kurt Lewin was a German- American psychologist. He was known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organization, and applied psychology in the United States.
(no profile available)
Application & Learning Transfer
Lev Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist. He was the founder of a theory of human cultural and biosocial development, better known as cultural historical psychology
Jean Piaget was a psychologist and philosopher from Switzerland. He is best known for his work involving cognitive development in children, and he developed the theory of ‘genetic epistemology’.
Jean Piaget spent most of his adult life studying cognitive development. He was the first in the field of psychology to complete a study of cognitive development. Piaget formulated a theory of cognitive child development which revealed that young children think in dramatically different ways than do adults. He demonstrated that children learn concepts as they go through a series of biological and sequential developmental stages. Because of this work, we can thank Piaget for the idea of developmentally appropriate education ( Educational Psychology, Sprinthall, Sprinthall & Oja, 1998)
David Kolb is credited with developing the first formal experiential learning theory in 1984. This theory was explicitly based on the work of Jean Piaget, John Dewey and Kurt Lewin.
Exploration, experience, relevance, reflection, and individual choice are at the heart of constructivism. Following are some facilitation methods that promote this type of learning.
Constructivism is a learner-centered approach to teaching that differs from traditional instruction that focuses on telling the learner information that needs to be memorized and applied to pass a test. The constructivist believes that learning has to be relevant to the learner in order to actually “learn” versus just remembering the information. While some may argue that it is difficult to determine the progress students make in a constructivist classroom due to this lack of evaluation and testing, one could also argue that the facilitation methods used increase learning transfer.
This is done by engaging the learner in problem solving, inquiry based tasks in which they actively seek and explore a topic. The learner utilizes their prior knowledge and applies this to new information. Constructivism is more meaningful and desirable for the learner because it relies on the natural curiosity of the learner with the help of a facilitator or instructor who encourages critical thinking. As described by Foley and Kaiser (2013), one barrier to learning transfer is a lack of motivation or confidence.
By using facilitation methods such as problem based learning, inquiry, experiential learning and social networking, learners are motivated because they can see the “real world” application of the concept. They gain confidence when they are able to synthesize what they already know with what the new knowledge they’ve gained. Again, this is facilitated by using real world cases or scenarios to facilitate learning, and transfer is increased because the learner can actually see how it applies.
Social networking and web 2.0 technologies also help learners to reflect on the new information gained and to discuss it with others which also helps to facilitate transfer. These technologies provide for a variety of ways for learners to connect not only with one another but also with the instructor. By reflecting and discussing with their peers, learners may see different ways to apply the information that they either hadn’t thought of or weren’t able to articulate thus again helping to reinforce learning transfer. In a social networking environment, the discussion is asynchronous so it also allows for learners to think about (“reflect”) on what they want to say without feeling like they have to come up with an answer immediately like in a live classroom environment.
In summary, there are a variety of facilitation methods in a constructivist environment that help to increase learning transfer. Regardless of age, it is typically very helpful to see the relevance of what you are learning applied to the real world. Even if it is not a direct correlation, it is beneficial for a learner to understand why something could be helpful in the future. For example, while many struggle to understand why they need to know geometry, an instructor/teacher/facilitator in a constructivist classroom would lead the students in a discussion or real-world example of how geometry could be/is used in real life (maybe trying to figure out how much materials would be needed for a home project, or they have a certain size room and have to fit so many pieces of furniture in it). The problem solving skills gained in many classes will be invaluable throughout life.
References:
Foley, J. M., & Kaiser, L.M.R. (2013). Learning transfer and its intentionality in adult and continuing education. In L.M.R. Kaiser, K. Kaminski & J.M. Foley (Eds.), Learning Transfer in adult education (5-15). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Periodicals.
Workshop: constructivism as a paradigm for teaching and learning. (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/exploration.html
Online Learning
One of the most common modern-day applications is web 2.0 technology and the use of social media to help learners “construct” or create new knowledge based on existing knowledge which they already possess. In short, what we do in this program by participating in discussion boards in a Learning Management System is an example of a current application of constructivist theory.
Discussion boards in an LMS help students to recall prior knowledge or experiences and link it with new knowledge. In some instances, the instructor or facilitator must help their students to recall this prior knowledge and also help them to see the difference between what they previously knew with what they know now. In other instances, the students read what others wrote and a lightbulb goes on when they see something that someone else thought of that they either hadn’t thought of or hadn’t fully articulated. Discussion boards also encourage students to think reflectively. Again, some do this on their own and others may need to be prompted by the instructor or facilitator.
A study of the International Education and Resource Network Science Technology and
Math (iEARN-STM) online professional development coursesought to identify some specific
constructivist learning principles associated with a successful on-line course. Some of the
learnings from the course included:
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The collaborative learning environment (through on line postings) has a positive impact
on learning.
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Reflection, both direct and indirect (primarily through participants’ contributions to
others’ postings), is a key element for tying learning back to classroom practice.
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Content should be based on contemporary topics – both through “official” content and through participants’ choice of projects
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The facilitators’ primary role is to create a welcoming and supportive environment, encourage participation and provide feedback.
These findings are consistent with the constructionist view that new learning is an active process where individuals use their experience, coupled with new information, to create learning. The online experience, however, must be deliberately created and facilitated using a constructionist framework. Technology must be viewed as a purposeful tool by educators rather than a solution in and of itself.
Social networks “can provide a culturally relevant, collaborative, and multi-genre forum through which students can make new meaning with texts” (White & Hungerford-Kresser, 2014). With the technical advancements of our society, one can be sure that the majority of our students use at least one social network.
Educators are faced with a number of problems due to their existence. Essentially there are two options;
first, we can allow social networks to disrupt learning or second, we can use them to engage students while
promoting learning. Incorporating social networks into facilitation is creating a new teaching tool.
This article demonstrates a case study on character journaling through a social network. Findings from
the study indicated the incorporation of social networks allowed for students to reach a level of uniqueness
in their learning and to increase their individual creativity.
In the Classroom
In a constructivist classroom, students are engaged in problem solving and inquiry based tasks in which they actively seek and explore a topic. They are expected to utilize their prior knowledge and apply it to new information. They are encouraged to constantly assess how the activity is helping them to gain understanding and to reflect on answers rather than depending on the teacher for the “correct” information. The teacher’s role becomes one of a guide who provides the tools for students to create their own knowledge.
Some specific applications such as “academic controversy”, government simulation, research, and experimentation can be found in Concept to Classroom.
Social Networking
Social media usage continues to increase and can be a useful method for constructing community and individual learning. Some considerations for using this approach include:
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Choose an appropriate text and a social networking site for this approach
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Allay possible skepticism of the approach with a research-based rationale for it and publicize the safeguards you have in place
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Envision what you want your learning outcomes to be and create explicit rules for the project based upon these outcomes, your knowledge of your students, and your knowledge of specific social networking sites
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Recognize that you may need to alter the assignment to meet unanticipated issues and have a way to communicate changes to students clearly and efficiently
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Provide computer access, time, and technological assistance to students who may not otherwise have access to social networks
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Provide an alternative but nonetheless interactive assignment for students who may (or whose parents may) object to the use of social networking
More information on the use of social media in constructivist education here.
Experiential Learning
Experiential education is a philosophy and methodology in which facilitators purposefully engage with learning in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills and clarify values. The process – as outlined in Kolb’s cycle of
Experiential learning – includes integration of knowledge (concepts and facts previously acquired thorough formal learning or past experience), an activity (applying this
knowledge to a real world setting), and reflection (analyzing and synthesizing previous knowledge and the activity to create new knowledge). The reflection process is particularly
important for the learner to begin to make connections between this new knowledge and future situations.
Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning promotes learning in a real-world setting. This method is often used in health education, particularly through case studies. A problem (or case) is posed by the facilitator. Learners – either individually or in groups – decide what further information they need or draw upon their experience to address the problem. Research may be done to gain knowledge needed to address the problem. Findings and decided-upon applications are often discussed in a group setting to provide feedback and allow learners to reflect upon their answers based on others’ findings. Developing an appropriate problem or case is essential. They should be challenging (as appropriate for the level of the learner) and open-ended.
An example of problem-based learning in Evidence-based Medicine training can be found here:
http://www.aansneurosurgeon.org/8/ebm-training-problem-based-learning-in-resident-education/.
Inquiry
Inquiry is designed to increase engagement and develop a deeper
understanding of the subject. Learners are at the center of the
inquiry process, while instructors and resources serve as a support.
Specific steps for inquiry include asking questions (either carefully
developed by the facilitator or learner-developed), investigation,
analysis, communication, and reflection. One of the primary benefits
of this method is the opportunity for students to learn not just about the
subject, but critical-thinking skills through the process itself.
More information can be found here:
